CREATING INCENTIVES TO AVOID DEFORESTATION

I hope that those who read this paper will see it for what it is – a sincere attempt to reconcile the interests of countries such as mine and those of the wider world. It is not in any way a threat, or a suggestion that we will deliberately destroy our forest if the world does not pay us. Guyana has one of the lowest deforestation rates in the world and we want this to continue. But in common with other rainforest countries, we face immense development challenges. We need better schools and hospitals, teachers and doctors, economic opportunities and jobs for our citizens. Developing our economy to provide resources to fund these and many other social and economic needs has to be a responsible Government’s top priority. If we are to reconcile this with the world’s need for forests to be kept intact, we must find a way to make national development and avoiding deforestation complementary, not competing, objectives. This paper is focused on how the UNFCCC process can create the incentives to make this possible, but that is only part of a solution. To be sustainable in the long term, any measures to address deforestation must have the support of those who live in, and depend on, the forest. Throughout the first half of 2009, all our people will have the opportunity to participate in a nation-wide conversation on how Guyana can play its part. As negotiators within the UNFCCC process know all too well, the achievement of climate change goals can often fall victim to seemingly intractable issues. I hope that this paper will help to lift our sights above these issues, create clarity on the solution space for avoiding deforestation and move the world one step closer towards a global deal that is timely, effective and fair.

REFORESTRATION

Our special focus is on making sustainably manufactured wood products and at the same time bringing back exquisite tropical hardwoods that are in danger of disappearing forever. We currently sell in Costa Rica, so if you are looking for furniture, flooring, moldings, doors or anything wood for your home or business in Costa Rica, please contact us for references and quotes.

We work mostly in Spanish cedar as in the cabinets at right, laurel, and teak as in the doors pictured below, and we will harvest acacia that we planted in 2006. The trees we are growing on our plantations are owned by over 200 individuals and companies who have entrusted us with this task.

We encourage you to spread information you find here, but we do ask that you contact us before using photos or information from this site. Our material is from our own careful research and experience and may not apply to the soils and climates of other locations. (Please be aware of this if you have seen any of our writing elsewhere.) We want to make it possible for everyone to participate in turning the tide on deforestation.

Our Belief Finca Leola S.A. believes that the conservation of tropicalhardwoods for future generations will be achieved through sustainable forestry practices that are both a profitable investment and beneficial to the communities and to the ecological biodiversity surrounding tropical tree farms. We also believe that reducing the pressure against deforestation of old-growth forest is best done by using an alternative renewable source, plantation-grown hardwoods, to manufacture the products traditionally taken from these forests. To this end, we are growing trees for processing and sale as lumber and wood products. After all the trees have been harvested, the land they have helped pay for will be turned over to perpetual forest, forever protected from clear-cutting.

For those of you who can't come visit us in Costa Rica, you'll find lots of pictures on this website. The photo at right shows rows of pruned teak.

Overview of the Web Site

Here are some of the things you will find on this site.

	Reforestation — Much of what you will find in our blogs is about what we continue to learn in this area.
	Tree Information — This section includes not only characteristics of the different varieties of wood, but growth rates, current prices, and information on propagating, planting, pruning, fertilizing, etc. as information becomes available from our research.
	Profitable Reforestation — As you can see from our belief statement, we think that making money in reforestation is a good thing.
	Life in the Campo — What happens when a gringo and gringa impact (or more likely are impacted by) Costa Rican country living? A series of lighthearted articles discussing adventures in Costa Rica while trying to learn the culture while doing business. We think you will enjoy them.
	Costa Rica — Hundreds of photos taken in our part of Costa Rica and an assortment of links for those interested in visiting here or learning more about the people, language, commerce, and culture.
	Furniture and Wood Products — Everything we make is from sustainably harvested wood, whether from our own plantations or from nearby farms.

Although extreme care is taken to ensure the accuracy of information in this website, its owners, associated companies, and associated individuals accept no responsibility for damage or loss of any kind suffered directly or indirectly as a result of reliance upon information contained in this site.

RESOURCE MARKET

Research and Markets: Canadian Natural Resources Limited To Increase Spending On Natural Gas Exploration In 2009.
Business Wire | July 15, 2008 | COPYRIGHT 2009 Business Wire. This material is published under license from the publisher through the Gale Group, Farmington Hills, Michigan. All inquiries regarding rights should be directed to the Gale Group. (Hide copyright information) Copyright
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OZONELAYER

"The ozone layer" refers to the ozone within stratosphere, where over 90% of the earth's ozone resides. Ozone is an irritating, corrosive, colorless gas with a smell something like burning electrical wiring. In fact, ozone is easily produced by any high-voltage electrical arc (spark plugs, Van de Graaff generators, Tesla coils, arc welders). Each molecule of ozone has three oxygen atoms and is produced when oxygen molecules (O2) are broken up by energetic electrons or high energy radiation. For information on the history of the ozone layer for the layman, see the Short history of ozone depletion , National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's NOAA Ozone overview or NOAA on stratospheric ozone. For short and to-the-point answers, check out Robert Parson's Ozone overview, FAQ1

The Stratosphere

Variations in temperature and pressure divide the earths atmosphere into layers, shown below, and mixing of gases between the layers happens very slowly.

• The altitudes on the diagram are logarithmic so an analogy in the glossary might give you a better idea of the relative thicknesses of these layers.
• Notice that the lowest 10% of the atmosphere holds 90% of the air. This is because gases are compressable. In a huge pile of feathers the bottom-most feathers become compressed under the weight of the feathers above them. Likewise the lower levels of the atmosphere are filled with compressed air while the upper levels, such as the stratosphere, contain very 'thin' uncompressed air. Although the stratosphere layer is over four times thicker than the lower atmosphere, the stratosphere holds so little gas that ozone is still considered one of the minor trace-gases of the overall atmosphere.

The ozone layer absorbs 97-99% of the sun's high frequency ultraviolet light , light which is potentially damaging to life on earth. Every 1% decrease in the earths ozone shield is projected to increases the amount of UV light exposure to the lower atmosphere by 2%. Because this would cause more ozone to form in the lower atmosphere, it is uncertain how much of UV light would actually reach the earths surface. Recent UV measurements from around the northern hemisphere indicate small UV increases in rural areas and almost no increase in areas near large cities.

Units used to measure ozone concentration

When describing the amount or concentration of gas, scientists resort to several different units:

1. Dobsin unit (DU)- the principle unit for measuring ozone concentration. One DU is about twenty-seven million molecules per square centimeter ( the palm of your hand covers an area of rougly a hundred square centimeters). The ozone concentration over the US is about 300 DU and the antarctic hole during the late spring can drop to 117 DU.
2. Mixing ratios: within a specified volume, it is a fraction of the number of molecules of a particular gas divided by the total number of molecules in that given space. Terms of usually abreviated, like ppmv for parts-per-million or ppbv which is parts-per-billion . For example the concentration of HCl at 3 km is said to be about 0.1 ppbv; this means that if you selected a volume of air that contained 10 billion molecules of air, one of those molecules would be an HCl molecule.

Factors influencing Ozone concentrations

1. Stratospheric sulfate aerosols: large explosive volcanoes are able to place a significant amount of aerosols into the lower stratosphere, as well as some chlorine. Because more than 90% of a volcanic plume is water vapor most of the other compounds, including volcanic chlorine, get ''rained-out'' of the stratosphere. The effects of a large volcano on global weather are significant, which in turn can affect localized weather patterns such as the antarctic ozone hole. Many observations have linked the 1991 Mt. Pinatubo eruption to a 20% increase in the ozone hole that following spring[Solomon et al. 1993]) . The effects of a large volcanic eruption on total global ozone are more modest (less than 3%) and last no more than 2-3 years.
2. Stratospheric winds: every 26 months the tropical winds in the lower stratophere change from easterly to westerly and then back again, an event called the Quasi-biennial Ocillation (QBO). The QBO causes ozone values at a particular latitude to expand and contract roughly 3%. Since stratospheric winds move ozone, not destroy it, the loss of one latitude is the gain of another and globally the effects cancel out.

3. Greenhouse gases: to the degree that greenhouse gases might heat the planet and alter weather patterns, the magnatude of the stratospheric winds will certainly be affected. Some of the more popular senarios of global warming predict cooler stratospheric temperatures, leading to more polar stratospheric clouds and more active chlorine in the area of the antarctic ozone hole.
4. Sunspot cycle: ozone is created by solar UV radiation. The amount of UV radiation produced by the sun is not constant but varies by several percent in a rougly 11year cycle. This 11year cycle is related to magnetic changes within the sun which increase the solar UV output, and is heralded by an increase sunspots which appear on the surface of the sun. Comparisons of yearly ozone concentrations show a small 11 year variation in global ozone of about 2%. Episodes of unusual solar activity, solar storms and large solar flares, could certainly alter this value.
5. Stratospheric chlorine, coming mostly from man-made halocarbons. Careful subtracting of other natural factors yields a net decrease of 3% per decade in global ozone,1978-1991; due most likely to catalytic degredation by stratospheric chlorine.

Decrease in global ozone The measurement period is from November 1978 through November 1987, and combines depletion due to natural and man-made causes. This analysis and graphic comes from the United Nations Environmental Protection Agency(UNEP).

BEST TIPS TO GROW NATURE

With thorough soil preparation and regular maintenance it's possible to grow your own gourmet asparagus and harvest lots of deliciously succulent spears for many years.

Asparagus which is expensive to buy is a luxury vegetable with a relatively short harvesting period, but because it's a perennial knowing how to grow your own delicious spears means that repeating this seasonal treat is possible for twenty years. Home produced asparagus has a unique flavour which can't be matched by that sold in shops. Growing your own crop is an inexpensive way of adding delicate flavour to those special recipes.

How and When to Sow Asparagus Seed

Raising asparagus plants from seed to first harvest takes 3 years, but for the patient gardener it's well worth the wait.

• Sow under cover in large modules or 9cm pots in February.
• Germinate the seeds in an electric propagator set at 18 degrees centigrade.
• After germination remove the lid of the propagator and maintain a temperature of 13-16 degrees centigrade until the plants are 10-15cm tall.
• Harden off the young plants and transfer them outside to a well drained nursery bed in June.
• Keep weed free and watered in the first growing season.
• Plant in them in their permanent site next April.

Buy Asparagus Plants Known as Crowns to Save Time and Effort

To save time and effort most gardeners cut out a year and buy asparagus plants. As asparagus plants grow they produce long tubular roots which grow horizontally more than vertically. A one year old root system is called an asparagus crown.

Best Site and Soil Preparation for Asparagus

Asparagus will grow in a wide range of soil types and it doesn't need to be too fertile. It pays to adhere to the following guidelines:

• A well drained soil is essential, as is a deep root run.
• Ensure all perennial weeds are eradicated during ground preparation.
• Check the pH and lime if it is below 6. A pH of 6.5 to 7.00 is ideal.
• Ground preparation involves digging a trench 30cm wide and 20cm deep.
• Put well rotted manure in the bottom and cover this with 5cm of excavated soil raised in the centre to form a ridge.

How to Plant Asparagus Crowns

The best time to plant seed raised one year old, or bought crowns is March/Apri

• Space the crowns 30-45cm apart on top of the ridge.
• The crowns should be about 10cm deep.
• Spread out the roots and fill in the trench to cover the crowns.
• Keep filling in with soil as they grow leaving about 10cm of stem showing for the first few weeks then add no more soil.

How to Care for an Asparagus Bed

Don't harvest any spears until three years from sowing or two years from planting one year old crowns. Regular plant care is fairly straight forward and not very demanding of time:

• Keep well watered in the first year to aid establishment.
• Keep asparagus beds weed free by hand weeding. The shallow roots are easily damaged by hoeing.
• An annual mulch with a sandy loam or friable compost once the spears emerge is of great help in the battle to control weeds and retain moisture.
• On windy sites the top growth can break off causing crown damage. Use canes and twine either side of the rows for support.
• An application of general fertilizer such as 'Growmore' or pelleted chicken manure at a rate of 150 grammes per square metre put on as soon as growth starts in May and again at the end of harvesting is beneficial.
• In autumn the fern (foliage) turns a lovely straw yellow. This can be appreciated for about a week then it should be cut down to 2.5cm from soil level.
• The main pest to affect asparagus is the asparagus beetle. Adult asparagus beetles are up to 6mm long with yellow and black wing cases. They feed on asparagus foliage in spring. To prevent attack clear away plant debris (their hiding ground) and hand pick adult beetles and larvae.

Harvesting Asparagus Spears

Aim to cut asparagus spears when 15cm long. Resist the temptation to carry on cutting beyond the middle of the year (mid-late June), because the plants must have sufficient time to build up a store of food capable of producing a good crop next year.

• Use a sharp knife and cut 2 to 2.5cm below soil level.
• Discard the tough bottom end of spears which have grown much longer than 15cm, as indeed they will during hot days.
• Special asparagus knives with serrated blades are expensive and have no impact on the ease of cutting or flavour of the crop.

Some Varieties of Asparagus

Traditional cultivars of asparagus are a mixture of both male and female. Modern all male F1 cultivars produce more spears over a longer season, but they tend to be slimmer. The variety 'Connovers Colossal; has thick mid-green spears of superb flavour. 'Jersey Knight' and 'Gijnlim' are both reliable F1 hybrids.

This Gourmet Vegetable is Worth the Long Term Care

So there is no instant gratification for the asparagus gardener. It is not an ephemeral plant, but one which given long term care will reward the grower and cook with delicious, succulent spears over very many years

BIOTECHNOLOGY

History

Brewing was an early application of biotechnology

Main article: History of Biotechnology

Although not normally thought of as biotechnology, agriculture clearly fits the broad definition of "using a biological system to make products" such that the cultivation of plants may be viewed as the earliest biotechnological enterprise. Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution. The processes and methods of agriculture have been refined by other mechanical and biological sciences since its inception. Through early biotechnology, farmers were able to select the best suited and highest-yield crops to produce enough food to support a growing population. Other uses of biotechnology were required as crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain. Specific organisms and organism by-products were used to fertilize, restore nitrogen, and control pests. Throughout the use of agriculture, farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments and breeding them with other plants—one of the first forms of biotechnology. Cultures such as those in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and India developed the process of brewing beer. It is still done by the same basic method of using malted grains (containing enzymes) to convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process the carbohydrates in the grains were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol. Ancient Indians also used the juices of the plant Ephedra vulgaris and used to call it Soma.^{[citation needed]} Later other cultures produced the process of Lactic acid fermentation which allowed the fermentation and preservation of other forms of food. Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Manish keswani’s work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form.

Combinations of plants and other organisms were used as medications in many early civilizations. Since as early as 200 BC, people began to use disabled or minute amounts of infectious agents to immunize themselves against infections. These and similar processes have been refined in modern medicine and have led to many developments such as antibiotics, vaccines, and other methods of fighting sickness.^{[citation needed]}

In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology and explored ways of manufacturing specific products. In 1917, Chaim Weizmann first used a pure microbiological culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing corn starch using Clostridium acetobutylicum, to produce acetone, which the United Kingdom desperately needed to manufacture explosives during World War I.^[2]

The field of modern biotechnology is thought to have largely begun on June 16, 1980, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that a genetically-modified microorganism could be patented in the case of Diamond v. Chakrabarty.^[3] Indian-born Ananda Chakrabarty, working for General Electric, had developed a bacterium (derived from the Pseudomonas genus) capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills.

Revenue in the industry is expected to grow by 12.9% in 2008. Another factor influencing the biotechnology sector's success is improved intellectual property rights legislation—and enforcement—worldwide, as well as strengthened demand for medical and pharmaceutical products to cope with an ageing, and ailing, U.S. population.^[4]

Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the Department of Energy estimating ethanol usage could reduce U.S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030. The biotechnology sector has allowed the U.S. farming industry to rapidly increase its supply of corn and soybeans—the main inputs into biofuels—by developing genetically-modified seeds which are resistant to pests and drought. By boosting farm productivity, biotechnology plays a crucial role in ensuring that biofuel production targets are met.^[5]

[edit] Applications

A rose plant that began as cells grown in a tissue culture

Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e.g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses.

For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons.

A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example:

• Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale."^[6] Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector.
• Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.
• Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environments in the presence (or absence) of chemicals. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby ending the need of external application of pesticides. An example of this would be Bt corn. Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.
• Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genetic manipulation.
• White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.^{[citation needed]} The investments and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies form what has been described as the bioeconomy.

[edit] Medicine

In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas as

• drug production;
• pharmacogenomics;
• gene therapy; and
• genetic testing;

[edit] Pharmacogenomics

DNA Microarray chip – Some can do as many as a million blood tests at once

Main article: Pharmacogenomics

Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her body’s response to drugs. It is a coined word derived from the words “pharmacology” and “genomics”. It is hence the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and produce drugs that are adapted to each person’s genetic makeup.^[7]

Pharmacogenomics results in the following benefits:^[7]

1. Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies can create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells.
2. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient’s genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his/ her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose.
3. Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery of potential therapies will be made easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with numerous diseases and disorders. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as targets for the development of effective new therapies, which could significantly shorten the drug discovery process.
4. Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response without the attendant risks of infection. They will be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of being engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at once.

[edit] Pharmaceutical products

Computer-generated image of insulin hexamers highlighting the threefold symmetry, the zinc ions holding it together, and the histidine residues involved in zinc binding.

Most traditional pharmaceutical drugs are relatively simple molecules that have been found primarily through trial and error to treat the symptoms of a disease or illness.^{[citation needed]} Biopharmaceuticals are large biological molecules known as proteins and these usually target the underlying mechanisms and pathways of a malady (but not always, as is the case with using insulin to treat type 1 diabetes mellitus, as that treatment merely addresses the symptoms of the disease, not the underlying cause which is autoimmunity); it is a relatively young industry. They can deal with targets in humans that may not be accessible with traditional medicines. A patient typically is dosed with a small molecule via a tablet while a large molecule is typically injected.

Small molecules are manufactured by chemistry but larger molecules are created by living cells such as those found in the human body: for example, bacteria cells, yeast cells, animal or plant cells.

Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered microorganisms such as E. coli or yeast for the production of substances like synthetic insulin or antibiotics. It can also refer to transgenic animals or transgenic plants, such as Bt corn. Genetically altered mammalian cells, such as Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells, are also used to manufacture certain pharmaceuticals. Another promising new biotechnology application is the development of plant-made pharmaceuticals.

Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical therapies to treat hepatitis B, hepatitis C, cancers, arthritis, haemophilia, bone fractures, multiple sclerosis, and cardiovascular disorders. The biotechnology industry has also been instrumental in developing molecular diagnostic devices that can be used to define the target patient population for a given biopharmaceutical. Herceptin, for example, was the first drug approved for use with a matching diagnostic test and is used to treat breast cancer in women whose cancer cells express the protein HER2.

Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 Genentech developed synthetic humanized insulin by joining its gene with a plasmid vector inserted into the bacterium Escherichia coli. Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from the pancreas of abattoir animals (cattle and/or pigs). The resulting genetically engineered bacterium enabled the production of vast quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost^[8]. According to a 2003 study undertaken by the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) on the access to and availability of insulin in its member countries, synthetic 'human' insulin is considerably more expensive in most countries where both synthetic 'human' and animal insulin are commercially available: e.g. within European countries the average price of synthetic 'human' insulin was twice as high as the price of pork insulin^[9]. Yet in its position statement, the IDF writes that "there is no overwhelming evidence to prefer one species of insulin over another" and "[modern, highly-purified] animal insulins remain a perfectly acceptable alternative^[10].

Modern biotechnology has evolved, making it possible to produce more easily and relatively cheaply human growth hormone, clotting factors for hemophiliacs, fertility drugs, erythropoietin and other drugs.^[11] Most drugs today are based on about 500 molecular targets. Genomic knowledge of the genes involved in diseases, disease pathways, and drug-response sites are expected to lead to the discovery of thousands more new targets.^[11]

[edit] Genetic testing

Gel electrophoresis

Genetic testing involves the direct examination of the DNA molecule itself. A scientist scans a patient’s DNA sample for mutated sequences.

There are two major types of gene tests. In the first type, a researcher may design short pieces of DNA (“probes”) whose sequences are complementary to the mutated sequences. These probes will seek their complement among the base pairs of an individual’s genome. If the mutated sequence is present in the patient’s genome, the probe will bind to it and flag the mutation. In the second type, a researcher may conduct the gene test by comparing the sequence of DNA bases in a patient’s gene to disease in healthy individuals or their progeny.

Genetic testing is now used for:

• Carrier screening, or the identification of unaffected individuals who carry one copy of a gene for a disease that requires two copies for the disease to manifest;
• Confirmational diagnosis of symptomatic individuals;
• Determining sex;
• Forensic/identity testing;
• Newborn screening;
• Prenatal diagnostic screening;
• Presymptomatic testing for estimating the risk of developing adult-onset cancers;
• Presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset disorders.

Some genetic tests are already available, although most of them are used in developed countries. The tests currently available can detect mutations associated with rare genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Huntington’s disease. Recently, tests have been developed to detect mutation for a handful of more complex conditions such as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers. However, gene tests may not detect every mutation associated with a particular condition because many are as yet undiscovered, and the ones they do detect may present different risks to different people and populations.^[11]

[edit] Controversial questions

The bacterium Escherichia coli is routinely genetically engineered.

The absence of privacy and anti-discrimination legal protections in most countries can lead to discrimination in employment or insurance or other misuse of personal genetic information. This raises questions such as whether genetic privacy is different from medical privacy.^[12]

1. Reproductive issues. These include the use of genetic information in reproductive decision-making and the possibility of genetically altering reproductive cells that may be passed on to future generations. For example, germline therapy forever changes the genetic make-up of an individual’s descendants. Thus, any error in technology or judgment may have far-reaching consequences. Ethical issues like designer babies and human cloning have also given rise to controversies between and among scientists and bioethicists, especially in the light of past abuses with eugenics.
2. Clinical issues. These center on the capabilities and limitations of doctors and other health-service providers, people identified with genetic conditions, and the general public in dealing with genetic information.
3. Effects on social institutions. Genetic tests reveal information about individuals and their families. Thus, test results can affect the dynamics within social institutions, particularly the family.
4. Conceptual and philosophical implications regarding human responsibility, free will vis-à-vis genetic determinism, and the concepts of health and disease.

[edit] Gene therapy

Main article: Gene therapy

Gene therapy using an Adenovirus vector. A new gene is inserted into an adenovirus vector, which is used to introduce the modified DNA into a human cell. If the treatment is successful, the new gene will make a functional protein.

Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity. It can be used to target somatic (i.e., body) or gametes (i.e., egg and sperm) cells. In somatic gene therapy, the genome of the recipient is changed, but this change is not passed along to the next generation. In contrast, in germline gene therapy, the egg and sperm cells of the parents are changed for the purpose of passing on the changes to their offspring.

There are basically two ways of implementing a gene therapy treatment:

1. Ex vivo, which means “outside the body” – Cells from the patient’s blood or bone marrow are removed and grown in the laboratory. They are then exposed to a virus carrying the desired gene. The virus enters the cells, and the desired gene becomes part of the DNA of the cells. The cells are allowed to grow in the laboratory before being returned to the patient by injection into a vein.
2. In vivo, which means “inside the body” – No cells are removed from the patient’s body. Instead, vectors are used to deliver the desired gene to cells in the patient’s body.

As of June 2001, more than 500 clinical gene-therapy trials involving about 3,500 patients have been identified worldwide. Around 78% of these are in the United States, with Europe having 18%. These trials focus on various types of cancer, although other multigenic diseases are being studied as well. Recently, two children born with severe combined immunodeficiency disorder (“SCID”) were reported to have been cured after being given genetically engineered cells.

Gene therapy faces many obstacles before it can become a practical approach for treating disease.^[13] At least four of these obstacles are as follows:

1. Gene delivery tools. Genes are inserted into the body using gene carriers called vectors. The most common vectors now are viruses, which have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to human cells in a pathogenic manner. Scientists manipulate the genome of the virus by removing the disease-causing genes and inserting the therapeutic genes. However, while viruses are effective, they can introduce problems like toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues. In addition, in order for gene therapy to provide permanent therapeutic effects, the introduced gene needs to be integrated within the host cell's genome. Some viral vectors effect this in a random fashion, which can introduce other problems such as disruption of an endogenous host gene.
2. High costs. Since gene therapy is relatively new and at an experimental stage, it is an expensive treatment to undertake. This explains why current studies are focused on illnesses commonly found in developed countries, where more people can afford to pay for treatment. It may take decades before developing countries can take advantage of this technology.
3. Limited knowledge of the functions of genes. Scientists currently know the functions of only a few genes. Hence, gene therapy can address only some genes that cause a particular disease. Worse, it is not known exactly whether genes have more than one function, which creates uncertainty as to whether replacing such genes is indeed desirable.
4. Multigene disorders and effect of environment. Most genetic disorders involve more than one gene. Moreover, most diseases involve the interaction of several genes and the environment. For example, many people with cancer not only inherit the disease gene for the disorder, but may have also failed to inherit specific tumor suppressor genes. Diet, exercise, smoking and other environmental factors may have also contributed to their disease.

[edit] Human Genome Project

DNA Replication image from the Human Genome Project (HGP)

The Human Genome Project is an initiative of the U.S. Department of Energy (“DOE”) that aims to generate a high-quality reference sequence for the entire human genome and identify all the human genes.

The DOE and its predecessor agencies were assigned by the U.S. Congress to develop new energy resources and technologies and to pursue a deeper understanding of potential health and environmental risks posed by their production and use. In 1986, the DOE announced its Human Genome Initiative. Shortly thereafter, the DOE and National Institutes of Health developed a plan for a joint Human Genome Project (“HGP”), which officially began in 1990.

The HGP was originally planned to last 15 years. However, rapid technological advances and worldwide participation accelerated the completion date to 2003 (making it a 13 year project). Already it has enabled gene hunters to pinpoint genes associated with more than 30 disorders.^[14]

[edit] Cloning

Main article: Cloning

Cloning involves the removal of the nucleus from one cell and its placement in an unfertilized egg cell whose nucleus has either been deactivated or removed.

There are two types of cloning:

1. Reproductive cloning. After a few divisions, the egg cell is placed into a uterus where it is allowed to develop into a fetus that is genetically identical to the donor of the original nucleus.
2. Therapeutic cloning.^[15] The egg is placed into a Petri dish where it develops into embryonic stem cells, which have shown potentials for treating several ailments.^[16]

In February 1997, cloning became the focus of media attention when Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute announced the successful cloning of a sheep, named Dolly, from the mammary glands of an adult female. The cloning of Dolly made it apparent to many that the techniques used to produce her could someday be used to clone human beings.^[17] This stirred a lot of controversy because of its ethical implications.

[edit] Agriculture

Responsible biotechnology is not the enemy; starvation is. Without adequate food supplies at affordable prices, we cannot expect world health or peace.

—Jimmy Carter, Former President of the United States, 11 Jul 1997 , ^[18]

[edit] Crop yield

Using the techniques of modern biotechnology, one or two genes(Smartstax from Monsanto in collaboration with Dow AgroSciences will use 8, starting in 2010) may be transferred to a highly developed crop variety to impart a new character that would increase its yield.^[19] However, while increases in crop yield are the most obvious applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture, it is also the most difficult one. Current genetic engineering techniques work best for effects that are controlled by a single gene. Many of the genetic characteristics associated with yield (e.g., enhanced growth) are controlled by a large number of genes, each of which has a minimal effect on the overall yield.^[20] There is, therefore, much scientific work to be done in this area.

[edit] Reduced vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses

Crops containing genes that will enable them to withstand biotic and abiotic stresses may be developed. For example, drought and excessively salty soil are two important limiting factors in crop productivity. Biotechnologists are studying plants that can cope with these extreme conditions in the hope of finding the genes that enable them to do so and eventually transferring these genes to the more desirable crops. One of the latest developments is the identification of a plant gene, At-DBF2, from Arabidopsis thaliana, a tiny weed that is often used for plant research because it is very easy to grow and its genetic code is well mapped out. When this gene was inserted into tomato and tobacco cells (see RNA interference), the cells were able to withstand environmental stresses like salt, drought, cold and heat, far more than ordinary cells. If these preliminary results prove successful in larger trials, then At-DBF2 genes can help in engineering crops that can better withstand harsh environments.^[21] Researchers have also created transgenic rice plants that are resistant to rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV). In Africa, this virus destroys majority of the rice crops and makes the surviving plants more susceptible to fungal infections.^[22]

[edit] Increased nutritional qualities

Proteins in foods may be modified to increase their nutritional qualities. Proteins in legumes and cereals may be transformed to provide the amino acids needed by human beings for a balanced diet.^[20] A good example is the work of Professors Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer on the so-called Golden rice (discussed below).

[edit] Improved taste, texture or appearance of food

Modern biotechnology can be used to slow down the process of spoilage so that fruit can ripen longer on the plant and then be transported to the consumer with a still reasonable shelf life. This alters the taste, texture and appearance of the fruit. More importantly, it could expand the market for farmers in developing countries due to the reduction in spoilage. However, there is sometimes a lack of understanding by researchers in developed countries about the actual needs of prospective beneficiaries in developing countries. For example, engineering soybeans to resist spoilage makes them less suitable for producing tempeh which is a significant source of protein that depends on fermentation. The use of modified soybeans results in a lumpy texture that is less palatable and less convenient when cooking.

The first genetically modified food product was a tomato which was transformed to delay its ripening.^[23] Researchers in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines and Vietnam are currently working on delayed-ripening papaya in collaboration with the University of Nottingham and Zeneca.^[24]

Biotechnology in cheese production:^[25] enzymes produced by micro-organisms provide an alternative to animal rennet – a cheese coagulant – and an alternative supply for cheese makers. This also eliminates possible public concerns with animal-derived material, although there are currently no plans to develop synthetic milk, thus making this argument less compelling. Enzymes offer an animal-friendly alternative to animal rennet. While providing comparable quality, they are theoretically also less expensive.

About 85 million tons of wheat flour is used every year to bake bread.^[26] By adding an enzyme called maltogenic amylase to the flour, bread stays fresher longer. Assuming that 10–15% of bread is thrown away as stale, if it could be made to stay fresh another 5–7 days then perhaps 2 million tons of flour per year would be saved. Other enzymes can cause bread to expand to make a lighter loaf, or alter the loaf in a range of ways.

[edit] Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals

Most of the current commercial applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture are on reducing the dependence of farmers on agrochemicals. For example, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil bacterium that produces a protein with insecticidal qualities. Traditionally, a fermentation process has been used to produce an insecticidal spray from these bacteria. In this form, the Bt toxin occurs as an inactive protoxin, which requires digestion by an insect to be effective. There are several Bt toxins and each one is specific to certain target insects. Crop plants have now been engineered to contain and express the genes for Bt toxin, which they produce in its active form. When a susceptible insect ingests the transgenic crop cultivar expressing the Bt protein, it stops feeding and soon thereafter dies as a result of the Bt toxin binding to its gut wall. Bt corn is now commercially available in a number of countries to control corn borer (a lepidopteran insect), which is otherwise controlled by spraying (a more difficult process).

Crops have also been genetically engineered to acquire tolerance to broad-spectrum herbicide. The lack of herbicides with broad-spectrum activity and no crop injury was a consistent limitation in crop weed management. Multiple applications of numerous herbicides were routinely used to control a wide range of weed species detrimental to agronomic crops. Weed management tended to rely on preemergence—that is, herbicide applications were sprayed in response to expected weed infestations rather than in response to actual weeds present. Mechanical cultivation and hand weeding were often necessary to control weeds not controlled by herbicide applications. The introduction of herbicide-tolerant crops has the potential of reducing the number of herbicide active ingredients used for weed management, reducing the number of herbicide applications made during a season, and increasing yield due to improved weed management and less crop injury. Transgenic crops that express tolerance to glyphosate, glufosinate and bromoxynil have been developed. These herbicides can now be sprayed on transgenic crops without inflicting damage on the crops while killing nearby weeds.^[27]

From 1996 to 2001, herbicide tolerance was the most dominant trait introduced to commercially available transgenic crops, followed by insect resistance. In 2001, herbicide tolerance deployed in soybean, corn and cotton accounted for 77% of the 626,000 square kilometres planted to transgenic crops; Bt crops accounted for 15%; and "stacked genes" for herbicide tolerance and insect resistance used in both cotton and corn accounted for 8%.^[28]

[edit] Production of novel substances in crop plants

Biotechnology is being applied for novel uses other than food. For example, oilseed can be modified to produce fatty acids for detergents, substitute fuels and petrochemicals. Potatoes, tomatoes, ricererere tobacco, lettuce, safflowers, and other plants have been genetically-engineered to produce insulin and certain vaccines. If future clinical trials prove successful, the advantages of edible vaccines would be enormous, especially for developing countries. The transgenic plants may be grown locally and cheaply. Homegrown vaccines would also avoid logistical and economic problems posed by having to transport traditional preparations over long distances and keeping them cold while in transit. And since they are edible, they will not need syringes, which are not only an additional expense in the traditional vaccine preparations but also a source of infections if contaminated.^[29] In the case of insulin grown in transgenic plants, it is well-established that the gastrointestinal system breaks the protein down therefore this could not currently be administered as an edible protein. However, it might be produced at significantly lower cost than insulin produced in costly, bioreactors. For example, Calgary, Canada-based SemBioSys Genetics, Inc. reports that its safflower-produced insulin will reduce unit costs by over 25% or more and approximates a reduction in the capital costs associated with building a commercial-scale insulin manufacturing facility of over $100 million, compared to traditional biomanufacturing facilities^[30].

[edit] Criticism

There is another side to the agricultural biotechnology issue. It includes increased herbicide usage and resultant herbicide resistance, "super weeds," residues on and in food crops, genetic contamination of non-GM crops which hurt organic and conventional farmers, damage for all wildlife from glyphosate, etc.^[31][32]

[edit] Biological engineering

Main article: Bioengineering

Biotechnological engineering or biological engineering is a branch of engineering that focuses on biotechnologies and biological science. It includes different disciplines such as biochemical engineering, biomedical engineering, bio-process engineering, biosystem engineering and so on. Because of the novelty of the field, the definition of a bioengineer is still undefined. However, in general it is an integrated approach of fundamental biological sciences and traditional engineering principles.

Biotechnologist are often employed to scale up bio processes from the laboratory scale to the manufacturing scale. Moreover, as with most engineers, they often deal with management, economic and legal issues. Since patents and regulation (e.g., U.S. Food and Drug Administration regulation in the U.S.) are very important issues for biotech enterprises, bioengineers are often required to have knowledge related to these issues.

The increasing number of biotech enterprises is likely to create a need for bioengineers in the years to come. Many universities throughout the world are now providing programs in bioengineering and biotechnology (as independent programs or specialty programs within more established engineering fields).

[edit] Bioremediation and Biodegradation

Main article: Microbial biodegradation

Biotechnology is being used to engineer and adapt organisms especially microorganisms in an effort to find sustainable ways to clean up contaminated environments. The elimination of a wide range of pollutants and wastes from the environment is an absolute requirement to promote a sustainable development of our society with low environmental impact. Biological processes play a major role in the removal of contaminants and biotechnology is taking advantage of the astonishing catabolic versatility of microorganisms to degrade/convert such compounds. New methodological breakthroughs in sequencing, genomics, proteomics, bioinformatics and imaging are producing vast amounts of information. In the field of Environmental Microbiology, genome-based global studies open a new era providing unprecedented in silico views of metabolic and regulatory networks, as well as clues to the evolution of degradation pathways and to the molecular adaptation strategies to changing environmental conditions. Functional genomic and metagenomic approaches are increasing our understanding of the relative importance of different pathways and regulatory networks to carbon flux in particular environments and for particular compounds and they will certainly accelerate the development of bioremediation technologies and biotransformation processes.^[33]

Marine environments are especially vulnerable since oil spills of coastal regions and the open sea are poorly containable and mitigation is difficult. In addition to pollution through human activities, millions of tons of petroleum enter the marine environment every year from natural seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable fraction of petroleum oil entering marine systems is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial communities, in particular by a remarkable recently discovered group of specialists, the so-called hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCCB).^[34]

[edit] Education

In 1988, after prompting from the United States Congress, the National Institute of General Medical Sciences (National Institutes of Health) instituted a funding mechanism for biotechnology training. Universities nationwide compete for these funds to establish Biotechnology Training Programs (BTPs). Each successful application is generally funded for five years then must be competitively renewed. Graduate students in turn compete for acceptance into a BTP. If accepted, stipend, tuition and health insurance support is provided for two or three years during the course of their PhD thesis work. Nineteen institutions offer NIGMS supported BTPs[1]. Biotechnology training is also offered at the undergraduate level and in community colleges.

[edit] Notable researchers and individuals

• Canada : Frederick Banting, Lorne Babiuk, Tak Wah Mak
• Europe : Francis Crick, Jacques Monod, Paul Nurse, Ingo Potrykus, Ralf Reski, Fred Sanger, Arpad Pusztai, Werner Arber
• Finland : Leena Palotie
• Hong Kong : Dr. Dominic Lam, Lap-Chee Tsui
• Iceland : Kari Stefansson
• India : Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw (Biocon)
• Ireland : Timothy O'Brien, Dermot P Kelleher
• Mexico : Francisco Bolívar Zapata
• U.S. : Roger Beachy, David Botstein, Herbert Boyer, Sydney Brenner, James J. Collins, Leroy Hood, Eric Lander, Robert Langer, Thomas Okarma, Craig Venter, James D. Watson, Michael West
• Zimbabwe: Christopher Chetsanga

[edit] See also

Biotechnology portal

Main article: Outline of biotechnology

• Bioeconomics
• Bioengineering
• Biomimetics
• Biotechnology industrial park
• Bionic architecture
• Competitions and prizes in biotechnology
• Green Revolution
• Genetic Engineering
• International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development
• International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications
• List of biotechnology articles
• List of biotechnology companies
• List of emerging biotechnologies
• NASDAQ Biotechnology Index
• SWORD-financing
• Kelvin probe force microscope

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Environmental management is not, as the phrase could suggest, the management of the environment as such, but rather the management of interaction by the modern human societies with, and impact upon the environment. The three main issues that affect managers are those involving politics (networking), programs (projects), and resources (money, facilities, etc.). The need for environmental management can be viewed from a variety of perspectives. A more common philosophy and impetus behind environmental management is the concept of carrying capacity. Simply put, carrying capacity refers to the maximum number of organisms a particular resource can sustain. The concept of carrying capacity, whilst understood by many cultures over history, has its roots in Malthusian theory. Environmental management is therefore not the conservation of the environment solely for the environment's sake, but rather the conservation of the environment for humankind's sake.^{[citation needed]} This element of sustainable exploitation, getting the most out of natural assets, is visible in the EU Water Framework Directive.

Contents [hide] 1 Environmental management journals 2 See also 3 References 4 External links

Environmental management involves the management of all components of the bio-physical environment, both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic). This is due to the interconnected and network of relationships amongst all living species and their habitats. The environment also involves the relationships of the human environment, such as the social, cultural and economic environment with the bio-physical environment.

As with all management functions, effective management tools, standards and systems are required. An 'environmental management standard or system or protocol attempts to reduce environmental impact as measured by some objective criteria. The ISO 14001 standard is the most widely used standard for environmental risk management and is closely aligned to the European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). As a common auditing standard, the ISO 19011 standard explains how to combine this with quality management.

Other environmental management systems (EMS) tend to be based on the ISO 14001 standard and many extend it in various ways:

• The Green Dragon Environmental Management Standard is a five level EMS designed for smaller organisations for whom ISO 14001 may be too onerous and for larger organisations who wish to implement ISO 14001 in a more manageable step-by-step approach
• BS 8555 is a phased standard that can help smaller companies move to ISO 14001 in six manageable steps
• The Natural Step focuses on basic sustainability criteria and helps focus engineering on reducing use of materials or energy use that is unsustainable in the long term
• Natural Capitalism advises using accounting reform and a general biomimicry and industrial ecology approach to do the same thing
• US Environmental Protection Agency has many further terms and standards that it defines as appropriate to large-scale EMS.^{[citation needed]}
• The UN and World Bank has encouraged adopting a "natural capital" measurement and management framework.^{[citation needed]}
• The European Union Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS)

Other strategies exist that rely on making simple distinctions rather than building top-down management "systems" using performance audits and full cost accounting. For instance, Ecological Intelligent Design divides products into consumables, service products or durables and unsaleables - toxic products that no one should buy, or in many cases, do not realize they are buying. By eliminating the unsaleables from the comprehensive outcome of any purchase, better environmental management is achieved without "systems".

Recent successful cases have put forward the notion of "Integrated Management". It shares a wider approach and stresses out the importance of interdisciplinary assessment. It is an interesting notion that might not be adaptable to all cases^[1].

"Today's businesses must comply with many Federal, State and local environmental laws, rules, and regulations. It's vital to safeguard your company against compliance short-cuts. This approach leaves you vulnerable to violations of the law, in addition to missing important environmental liabilities."^[2]

[edit] Environmental management journals

• Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, ISSN 1618-954X
• Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, ISSN: 1535-3966 (electronic) 1535-3958 (paper), John Wiley & Sons
• Environmental Practice, ISSN: 1466-0474 (electronic) 1466-0466 (paper), Cambridge University Press
• Environmental Quality Management, ISSN: 1520-6483 (electronic) 1088-1913 (paper), John Wiley & Sons
• Journal of Environmental Economics and Management
• Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, ISSN: 1360-0559 (electronic) 0964-0568 (paper), Routledge
• Journal of Environmental Management, ISSN: 0301-4797, Elsevier
• Environmental Values

[edit] See also

• Eco-Management and Audit Scheme
• Actor analysis
• Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management
• Cleaner production
• Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety
• Department of Environmental Management
• Environmental impact assessment
• Environmental management system
• Environmental management scheme
• Environmental Quality Management
• Environmental Risk Management Authority
• Environmental science
• Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management (IEEM)
• ISO 14000
• ISO 19011
• ISO Guide 64
• List of environmental studies topics
• Multipurpose reservoir