FOOD RESOURCES

Average daily calorie consumption

Food is any substance, usually composed of carbohydrates, fats, proteins and water, that can be eaten or drunk by an animal, including humans, for nutrition or pleasure.^[1] Items considered food may be sourced from plants, animals or other categories such as fungus or fermented products like alcohol. Although many human cultures sought food items through hunting and gathering, today most cultures use farming, ranching, and fishing, with hunting, foraging and other methods of a local nature included but playing a minor role.

Most traditions have a recognizable cuisine, a specific set of cooking traditions, preferences, and practices, the study of which is known as gastronomy. Many cultures have diversified their foods by means of preparation, cooking methods and manufacturing. This also includes a complex food trade which helps the cultures to economically survive by-way-of food, not just by consumption.

Many cultures study the dietary analysis of food habits. While humans are omnivores, religion and social constructs such as morality often affect which foods they will consume. Food safety is also a concern with foodborne illness claiming many lives each year. In many languages, food is often used metaphorically or figuratively, as in "food for thought".

Contents [hide] 1 Food sources 1.1 Plants 1.2 Animals 2 Production 3 Preparation 3.1 Animal slaughter and butchering 3.2 Cooking 3.2.1 Cooking equipment and methods 3.2.2 Raw food 3.3 Restaurants 3.4 Food manufacture 4 Commercial trade 4.1 International exports and imports 4.2 Marketing and retailing 4.3 Prices 5 Famine and hunger 5.1 Food aid 6 Safety 6.1 Allergies 7 Diet 7.1 Cultural and religious diets 7.2 Diet deficiencies 7.3 Moral, ethical, and health conscious diet 8 Nutrition 9 Legal definition 10 See also 11 Notes 12 References 13 External links

Food sources

Almost all foods are of plant or animal origin. However water and salt (both inorganic substances) are important parts of the human diet. Salt is often eaten as a flavoring or preservative.

Other foods not from animal or plant sources include various edible fungi, such as mushrooms. Fungi and ambient bacteria are used in the preparation of fermented and pickled foods such as leavened bread, alcoholic drinks, cheese, pickles, and yogurt. Many cultures eat seaweed, a protist, or blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) such as Spirulina.^[2] Additionally baking soda, another inorganic substance, is used in food preparation.

Plants

Foods from plant sources

Many plants or plant parts are eaten as food. There are around 2,000 plant species which are cultivated for food, and many have several distinct cultivars.^[3]

Seeds of plants are a good source of food for animals, including humans because they contain nutrients necessary for the plant's initial growth. In fact, the majority of food consumed by human beings are seed-based foods. Edible seeds include cereals (such as maize, wheat, and rice), legumes (such as beans, peas, and lentils), and nuts. Oilseeds are often pressed to produce rich oils, such as sunflower, rapeseed (including canola oil), and sesame.^[4] One of the earliest food recipes made from ground chickpeas is called hummus, which can be traced back to Ancient Egypt times.

Fruits are the ripened ovaries of plants, including the seeds within. Many plants have evolved fruits that are attractive as a food source to animals, so that animals will eat the fruits and excrete the seeds some distance away. Fruits, therefore, make up a significant part of the diets of most cultures. Some botanical fruits, such as tomatoes, pumpkins and eggplants, are eaten as vegetables.^[5] (For more information, see list of fruits.)

Vegetables are a second type of plant matter that is commonly eaten as food. These include root vegetables (such as potatoes and carrots), leaf vegetables (such as spinach and lettuce), stem vegetables (such as bamboo shoots and asparagus), and inflorescence vegetables (such as globe artichokes and broccoli). Many herbs and spices are highly-flavorful vegetables.^[6]

Animals

Main article: Animal source foods

Various raw meats

Animals can be used as food either directly, or indirectly by the products they produce. Meat is an example of a direct product taken from an animal, which comes from either muscle systems or from organs. Food products produced by animals include milk produced by mammals, which in many cultures is drunk or processed into dairy products such as cheese or butter. In addition birds and other animals lay eggs, which are often eaten, and bees produce honey, a popular sweetener in many cultures. Some cultures consume blood, some in the form of blood sausage, as a thickener for sauces, a cured salted form for times of food scarcity, and others use blood in stews such as civet.^[7] Some cultures and people do not consume meat or animal food products for cultural dietary or ideological reasons , Vegetarians do not consume meat while Vegans do not consume any food that comes or contains ingredients that come from an animal source.

Production

Tractor and Chaser bin

Main article: Agriculture

Food is traditionally obtained through farming, ranching, and fishing, with hunting, foraging and other methods of subsistence locally important. More recently, there has been a growing trend towards more sustainable agricultural practices. This approach, which is partly fueled by consumer demand, encourages biodiversity, local self-reliance and organic farming methods.^[8] Major influences on food production are international organizations, (e.g. the World Trade Organization and Common Agricultural Policy), national government policy (or law), and war.^[9]

Preparation

While some food can be eaten raw, many foods undergo some form of preparation for reasons of safety, palatability, or flavor. At the simplest level this may involve washing, cutting, trimming or adding other foods or ingredients, such as spices. It may also involve mixing, heating or cooling, pressure cooking, fermentation, or combination with other food. In a home, most food preparation takes place in a kitchen. Some preparation is done to enhance the taste or aesthetic appeal; other preparation may help to preserve the food; and others may be involved in cultural identity. A meal is made up of food which is prepared to be eaten at a specific time and place.^[10]

Animal slaughter and butchering

Workers and cattle in a slaughterhouse

The preparation of animal-based food will usually involve slaughter, evisceration, hanging, portioning and rendering. In developed countries, this is usually done outside the home in slaughterhouses which are used to process animals en mass for meat production. Many countries regulate their slaughterhouses by law. For example, the United States has established the Humane Slaughter Act of 1958, which requires that an animal be stunned before killing. This act, like those in many countries, exempts slaughter in accordance to religious law, such as kosher shechita and dhabiĥa halal. Strict interpretations of kashrut require the animal to be fully aware when its carotid artery is cut.^[11]

On the local level, a butcher may commonly break down larger animal meat into smaller manageable cuts and pre-wrapped for commercial sale or wrapped to order in butcher paper. In addition, fish and seafood may be fabricated into smaller cuts by a fish monger at the local level. However fish butchery may be done on board a fishing vessel and quick-frozen for preservation of quality.^[12]

WATER RESOURCES

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A natural wetland

Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful to humans. Uses of water include agricultural, industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. Virtually all of these human uses require fresh water.

97% of water on the Earth is salt water, leaving only 3% as fresh water of which slightly over two thirds is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps.^[1] The remaining unfrozen freshwater is mainly found as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air.^[2]

Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of clean, fresh water is steadily decreasing. Water demand already exceeds supply in many parts of the world and as the world population continues to rise, so too does the water demand. Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as, during the 20th century, more than half the world’s wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services. Biodiversity-rich freshwater ecosystems are currently declining faster than marine or land ecosystems.^[3] The framework for allocating water resources to water users (where such a framework exists) is known as water rights.

A graphical distribution of the locations of water on Earth.

Contents [hide] 1 Sources of fresh water 1.1 Surface water 1.2 Under river flow 1.3 Ground water 1.4 Desalination 1.5 Frozen water 2 Uses of fresh water 2.1 Agricultural 2.2 Industrial 2.3 Household 2.4 Recreation 2.5 Environmental 3 Water stress 3.1 Population growth 3.2 Expansion of business activity 3.3 Rapid urbanization 3.4 Climate change 3.5 Depletion of aquifers 3.6 Pollution and water protection 3.7 Water and conflict 4 World water supply and distribution 5 Economic considerations 5.1 Business response 6 See also 7 Further reading 8 Notes 9 References 10 External links

[edit] Sources of fresh water

[edit] Surface water

Lake Chungará and Parinacota volcano in northern Chile

Surface water is water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland. Surface water is naturally replenished by precipitation and naturally lost through discharge to the oceans, evaporation, and sub-surface seepage.

Although the only natural input to any surface water system is precipitation within its watershed, the total quantity of water in that system at any given time is also dependent on many other factors. These factors include storage capacity in lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs, the permeability of the soil beneath these storage bodies, the runoff characteristics of the land in the watershed, the timing of the precipitation and local evaporation rates. All of these factors also affect the proportions of water lost.

Human activities can have a large and sometimes devastating impact on these factors. Humans often increase storage capacity by constructing reservoirs and decrease it by draining wetlands. Humans often increase runoff quantities and velocities by paving areas and channelizing stream flow.

The total quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human water users have an intermittent need for water. For example, many farms require large quantities of water in the spring, and no water at all in the winter. To supply such a farm with water, a surface water system may require a large storage capacity to collect water throughout the year and release it in a short period of time. Other users have a continuous need for water, such as a power plant that requires water for cooling. To supply such a power plant with water, a surface water system only needs enough storage capacity to fill in when average stream flow is below the power plant's need.

Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of precipitation within a watershed is the upper bound for average consumption of natural surface water from that watershed.

Natural surface water can be augmented by importing surface water from another watershed through a canal or pipeline. It can also be artificially augmented from any of the other sources listed here, however in practice the quantities are negligible. Humans can also cause surface water to be "lost" (i.e. become unusable) through pollution.

Brazil is the country estimated to have the largest supply of fresh water in the world, followed by Russia and Canada.^[4]

[edit] Under river flow

Throughout the course of the river, the total volume of water transported downstream will often be a combination of the visible free water flow together with a substantial contribution flowing through sub-surface rocks and gravels that underlie the river and its floodplain called the hyporheic zone. For many rivers in large valleys, this unseen component of flow may greatly exceed the visible flow. The hyporheic zone often forms a dynamic interface between surface water and true ground-water receiving water from the ground water when aquifers are fully charged and contributing water to ground-water when ground waters are depleted. This is especially significant in karst areas where pot-holes and underground rivers are common.

[edit] Ground water

Sub-Surface water travel time

Shipot, a common water source in Ukrainian villages

Sub-surface water, or groundwater, is fresh water located in the pore space of soil and rocks. It is also water that is flowing within aquifers below the water table. Sometimes it is useful to make a distinction between sub-surface water that is closely associated with surface water and deep sub-surface water in an aquifer (sometimes called "fossil water").

Sub-surface water can be thought of in the same terms as surface water: inputs, outputs and storage. The critical difference is that due to its slow rate of turnover, sub-surface water storage is generally much larger compared to inputs than it is for surface water. This difference makes it easy for humans to use sub-surface water unsustainably for a long time without severe consequences. Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of seepage above a sub-surface water source is the upper bound for average consumption of water from that source.

The natural input to sub-surface water is seepage from surface water. The natural outputs from sub-surface water are springs and seepage to the oceans.

If the surface water source is also subject to substantial evaporation, a sub-surface water source may become saline. This situation can occur naturally under endorheic bodies of water, or artificially under irrigated farmland. In coastal areas, human use of a sub-surface water source may cause the direction of seepage to ocean to reverse which can also cause soil salinization. Humans can also cause sub-surface water to be "lost" (i.e. become unusable) through pollution. Humans can increase the input to a sub-surface water source by building reservoirs or detention ponds.

[edit] Desalination

Desalination is an artificial process by which saline water (generally sea water) is converted to fresh water. The most common desalination processes are distillation and reverse osmosis. Desalination is currently expensive compared to most alternative sources of water, and only a very small fraction of total human use is satisfied by desalination. It is only economically practical for high-valued uses (such as household and industrial uses) in arid areas. The most extensive use is in the Persian Gulf.

[edit] Frozen water

An iceberg as seen from Newfoundland

Several schemes have been proposed to make use of icebergs as a water source, however to date this has only been done for novelty purposes. Glacier runoff is considered to be surface water.

The Himalayas, which are often called "The Roof of the World", contain some of the most extensive and rough high altitude areas on Earth as well as the greatest area of glaciers and permafrost outside of the poles. Ten of Asia’s largest rivers flow from there, and more than a billion people’s livelihoods depend on them. To complicate matters, temperatures are rising more rapidly here than the global average. In Nepal the temperature has risen with 0.6 degree over the last decade, whereas the global warming has been around 0.7 over the last hundred years.^[5]

[edit] Uses of fresh water

Uses of fresh water can be categorized as consumptive and non-consumptive (sometimes called "renewable"). A use of water is consumptive if that water is not immediately available for another use. Losses to sub-surface seepage and evaporation are considered consumptive, as is water incorporated into a product (such as farm produce). Water that can be treated and returned as surface water, such as sewage, is generally considered non-consumptive if that water can be put to additional use.

[edit] Agricultural

A farm in Ontario

It is estimated that 69% of worldwide water use is for irrigation, with 15-35% of irrigation withdrawals being unsustainable.^[6]

In some areas of the world irrigation is necessary to grow any crop at all, in other areas it permits more profitable crops to be grown or enhances crop yield. Various irrigation methods involve different trade-offs between crop yield, water consumption and capital cost of equipment and structures. Irrigation methods such as furrow and overhead sprinkler irrigation are usually less expensive but are also typically less efficient, because much of the water evaporates, runs off or drains below the root zone. Other irrigation methods considered to be more efficient include drip or trickle irrigation, surge irrigation, and some types of sprinkler systems where the sprinklers are operated near ground level. These types of systems, while more expensive, usually offer greater potential to minimize runoff, drainage and evaporation. Any system that is improperly managed can be wasteful, all methods have the potential for high efficiencies under suitable conditions, appropriate irrigation timing and management. One issue that is often insufficiently considered is salinization of sub-surface water.

Aquaculture is a small but growing agricultural use of water. Freshwater commercial fisheries may also be considered as agricultural uses of water, but have generally been assigned a lower priority than irrigation (see Aral Sea and Pyramid Lake).

As global populations grow, and as demand for food increases in a world with a fixed water supply, there are efforts underway to learn how to produce more food with less water, through improvements in irrigation^[7] methods^[8] and technologies, agricultural water management, crop types, and water monitoring.

[edit] Industrial

A power plant in Poland

It is estimated that 15% of worldwide water use is industrial. Major industrial users include power plants, which use water for cooling or as a power source (i.e. hydroelectric plants), ore and oil refineries, which use water in chemical processes, and manufacturing plants, which use water as a solvent.

The portion of industrial water usage that is consumptive varies widely, but as a whole is lower than agricultural use.

Water is used in power generation. Hydroelectricity is electricity obtained from hydropower. Hydroelectric power comes from water driving a water turbine connected to a generator. Hydroelectricity is a low-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. The energy is supplied by the sun. Heat from the sun evaporates water, which condenses as rain in higher altitudes, from where it flows down.

Three Gorges Dam is the largest hydro-electric power station Pressurized water is used in water blasting and water jet cutters. Also, very high pressure water guns are used for precise cutting. It works very well, is relatively safe, and is not harmful to the environment. It is also used in the cooling of machinery to prevent over-heating, or prevent saw blades from over-heating.

Water is also used in many industrial processes and machines, such as the steam turbine and heat exchanger, in addition to its use as a chemical solvent. Discharge of untreated water from industrial uses is pollution. Pollution includes discharged solutes (chemical pollution) and discharged coolant water (thermal pollution). Industry requires pure water for many applications and utilizes a variety of purification techniques both in water supply and discharge.

[edit] Household

Drinking water

It is estimated that 15% of worldwide water use is for household purposes. These include drinking water, bathing, cooking, sanitation, and gardening. Basic household water requirements have been estimated by Peter Gleick at around 50 liters per person per day, excluding water for gardens. Drinking water is water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can be consumed or used without risk of immediate or long term harm. Such water is commonly called potable water. In most developed countries, the water supplied to households, commerce and industry is all of drinking water standard even though only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation.

[edit] Recreation

Whitewater rapids

Recreational water use is usually a very small but growing percentage of total water use. Recreational water use is mostly tied to reservoirs. If a reservoir is kept fuller than it would otherwise be for recreation, then the water retained could be categorized as recreational usage. Release of water from a few reservoirs is also timed to enhance whitewater boating, which also could be considered a recreational usage. Other examples are anglers, water skiers, nature enthusiasts and swimmers.

Recreational usage is usually non-consumptive. Golf courses are often targeted as using excessive amounts of water, especially in drier regions. It is, however, unclear whether recreational irrigation (which would include private gardens) has a noticeable effect on water resources. This is largely due to the unavailability of reliable data. Some governments, including the Californian Government, have labelled golf course usage as agricultural in order to deflect environmentalists' charges of wasting water. However, using the above figures as a basis, the actual statistical effect of this reassignment is close to zero.

Additionally, recreational usage may reduce the availability of water for other users at specific times and places. For example, water retained in a reservoir to allow boating in the late summer is not available to farmers during the spring planting season. Water released for whitewater rafting may not be available for hydroelectric generation during the time of peak electrical demand.

[edit] Environmental

Explicit environmental water use is also a very small but growing percentage of total water use. Environmental water usage includes artificial wetlands, artificial lakes intended to create wildlife habitat, fish ladders around dams, and water releases from reservoirs timed to help fish spawn.

Like recreational usage, environmental usage is non-consumptive but may reduce the availability of water for other users at specific times and places. For example, water release from a reservoir to help fish spawn may not be available to farms upstream.

[edit] Water stress

Best estimate of the share of people in developing countries with access to drinking water 1970–2000.

Main articles: water crisis and water stress

The concept of water stress is relatively simple: According to the World Business Council for Sustainable Development, it applies to situations where there is not enough water for all uses, whether agricultural, industrial or domestic. Defining thresholds for stress in terms of available water per capita is more complex, however, entailing assumptions about water use and its efficiency. Nevertheless, it has been proposed that when annual per capita renewable freshwater availability is less than 1,700 cubic meters, countries begin to experience periodic or regular water stress. Below 1,000 cubic meters, water scarcity begins to hamper economic development and human health and well-being.

[edit] Population growth

In 2000, the world population was 6.2 billion. The UN estimates that by 2050 there will be an additional 3.5 billion people with most of the growth in developing countries that already suffer water stress.^[9] Thus, water demand will increase unless there are corresponding increases in water conservation and recycling of this vital resource.^[10]

[edit] Expansion of business activity

Business activity ranging from industrialization to services such as tourism and entertainment continues to expand rapidly. This expansion requires increased water services including both supply and sanitation, which can lead to more pressure on water resources and natural ecosystems.

[edit] Rapid urbanization

The trend towards urbanization is accelerating. Small private wells and septic tanks that work well in low-density communities are not feasible within high-density urban areas. Urbanization requires significant investment in water infrastructure in order to deliver water to individuals and to process the concentrations of wastewater – both from individuals and from business. These polluted and contaminated waters must be treated or they pose unacceptable public health risks.

In 60% of European cities with more than 100,000 people, groundwater is being used at a faster rate than it can be replenished.^[11] Even if some water remains available, it costs more and more to capture it.

[edit] Climate change

Climate change could have significant impacts on water resources around the world because of the close connections between the climate and hydrologic cycle. Rising temperatures will increase evaporation and lead to increases in precipitation, though there will be regional variations in rainfall. Overall, the global supply of freshwater will increase. Both droughts and floods may become more frequent in different regions at different times, and dramatic changes in snowfall and snowmelt are expected in mountainous areas. Higher temperatures will also affect water quality in ways that are not well understood. Possible impacts include increased eutrophication. Climate change could also mean an increase in demand for farm irrigation, garden sprinklers, and perhaps even swimming pools.

[edit] Depletion of aquifers

Due to the expanding human population, competition for water is growing such that many of the worlds major aquifers are becoming depleted. This is due both for direct human consumption as well as agricultural irrigation by groundwater. Millions of pumps of all sizes are currently extracting groundwater throughout the world. Irrigation in dry areas such as northern China and India is supplied by groundwater, and is being extracted at an unsustainable rate. Cities that have experienced aquifer drops between 10 to 50 meters include Mexico City, Bangkok, Manila, Beijing, Madras and Shanghai.^[12]

[edit] Pollution and water protection

Main article: Water pollution

Polluted water

Water pollution is one of the main concerns of the world today. The governments of many countries have striven to find solutions to reduce this problem. Many pollutants threaten water supplies, but the most widespread, especially in underdeveloped countries, is the discharge of raw sewage into natural waters; this method of sewage disposal is the most common method in underdeveloped countries, but also is prevalent in quasi-developed countries such as China, India and Iran. Sewage, sludge, garbage, and even toxic pollutants are all dumped into the water. Even if sewage is treated, problems still arise. Treated sewage forms sludge, which may be placed in landfills, spread out on land, incinerated or dumped at sea.^[13] In addition to sewage, nonpoint source pollution such as agricultural runoff is a significant source of pollution in some parts of the world, along with urban stormwater runoff and chemical wastes dumped by industries and governments.

[edit] Water and conflict

The only known example of an actual inter-state conflict over water took place between 2500 and 2350 BC between the Sumerian states of Lagash and Umma.^[14] Yet, despite the lack of evidence of international wars being fought over water alone, water has been the source of various conflicts throughout history. When water scarcity causes political tensions to arise, this is referred to as water stress. Water stress has led most often to conflicts at local and regional levels.^[15] Using a purely quantitative methodology, Thomas Homer-Dixon successfully correlated water scarcity and scarcity of available arable lands to an increased chance of violent conflict.^[16]

Water stress can also exacerbate conflicts and political tensions which are not directly caused by water. Gradual reductions over time in the quality and/or quantity of fresh water can add to the instability of a region by depleting the health of a population, obstructing economic development, and exacerbating larger conflicts.^[17]

Conflicts and tensions over water are most likely to arise within national borders, in the downstream areas of distressed river basins. Areas such as the lower regions of China's Yellow River or the Chao Phraya River in Thailand, for example, have already been experiencing water stress for several years. Additionally, certain arid countries which rely heavily on water for irrigation, such as China, India, Iran, and Pakistan, are particularly at risk of water-related conflicts.^[17] Political tensions, civil protest, and violence may also occur in reaction to water privatization. The Bolivian Water Wars of 2000 are a case in point.

[edit] World water supply and distribution

Food and water are two basic human needs. However, global coverage figures from 2002 indicate that, of every 10 people:

• roughly 5 have a connection to a piped water supply at home (in their dwelling, plot or yard);
• 3 make use of some other sort of improved water supply, such as a protected well or public standpipe;
• 2 are unserved;
• In addition, 4 out of every 10 people live without improved sanitation.^[6]

At Earth Summit 2002 governments approved a Plan of Action to:

• Halve by 2015 the proportion of people unable to reach or afford safe drinking water. The Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment 2000 Report (GWSSAR) defines "Reasonable access" to water as at least 20 liters per person per day from a source within one kilometer of the user’s home.
• Halve the proportion of people without access to basic sanitation. The GWSSR defines "Basic sanitation" as private or shared but not public disposal systems that separate waste from human contact.

As the picture shows, in 2025, water shortages will be more prevalent among poorer countries where resources are limited and population growth is rapid, such as the Middle East, Africa, and parts of Asia. By 2025, large urban and peri-urban areas will require new infrastructure to provide safe water and adequate sanitation. This suggests growing conflicts with agricultural water users, who currently consume the majority of the water used by humans.

Generally speaking the more developed countries of North America, Europe and Russia will not see a serious threat to water supply by the year 2025, not only because of their relative wealth, but more importantly their populations will be better aligned with available water resources. North Africa, the Middle East, South Africa and northern China will face very severe water shortages due to physical scarcity and a condition of overpopulation relative to their carrying capacity with respect to water supply. Most of South America, Sub-Saharan Africa, Southern China and India will face water supply shortages by 2025; for these latter regions the causes of scarcity will be economic constraints to developing safe drinking water, as well as excessive population growth.

1.6 billion people have gained access to a safe water source since 1990. [2] The proportion of people in developing countries with access to safe water is calculated to have improved from 30 percent in 1970^[18] to 71 percent in 1990, 79 percent in 2000 and 84 percent in 2004. This trend is projected to continue.^[19]

[edit] Economic considerations

Water supply and sanitation require a huge amount of capital investment in infrastructure such as pipe networks, pumping stations and water treatment works. It is estimated that Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) nations need to invest at least USD 200 billion per year to replace aging water infrastructure to guarantee supply, reduce leakage rates and protect water quality.^[20]

International attention has focused upon the needs of the developing countries. To meet the Millennium Development Goals targets of halving the proportion of the population lacking access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015, current annual investment on the order of USD 10 to USD 15 billion would need to be roughly doubled. This does not include investments required for the maintenance of existing infrastructure.^[21]

Once infrastructure is in place, operating water supply and sanitation systems entails significant ongoing costs to cover personnel, energy, chemicals, maintenance and other expenses. The sources of money to meet these capital and operational costs are essentially either user fees, public funds or some combination of the two.

But this is where the economics of water management start to become extremely complex as they intersect with social and broader economic policy. Such policy questions are beyond the scope of this article, which has concentrated on basic information about water availability and water use. They are, nevertheless, highly relevant to understanding how critical water issues will affect business and industry in terms of both risks and opportunities.

CREATING INCENTIVES TO AVOID DEFORESTATION

I hope that those who read this paper will see it for what it is – a sincere attempt to reconcile the interests of countries such as mine and those of the wider world. It is not in any way a threat, or a suggestion that we will deliberately destroy our forest if the world does not pay us. Guyana has one of the lowest deforestation rates in the world and we want this to continue. But in common with other rainforest countries, we face immense development challenges. We need better schools and hospitals, teachers and doctors, economic opportunities and jobs for our citizens. Developing our economy to provide resources to fund these and many other social and economic needs has to be a responsible Government’s top priority. If we are to reconcile this with the world’s need for forests to be kept intact, we must find a way to make national development and avoiding deforestation complementary, not competing, objectives. This paper is focused on how the UNFCCC process can create the incentives to make this possible, but that is only part of a solution. To be sustainable in the long term, any measures to address deforestation must have the support of those who live in, and depend on, the forest. Throughout the first half of 2009, all our people will have the opportunity to participate in a nation-wide conversation on how Guyana can play its part. As negotiators within the UNFCCC process know all too well, the achievement of climate change goals can often fall victim to seemingly intractable issues. I hope that this paper will help to lift our sights above these issues, create clarity on the solution space for avoiding deforestation and move the world one step closer towards a global deal that is timely, effective and fair.

REFORESTRATION

Our special focus is on making sustainably manufactured wood products and at the same time bringing back exquisite tropical hardwoods that are in danger of disappearing forever. We currently sell in Costa Rica, so if you are looking for furniture, flooring, moldings, doors or anything wood for your home or business in Costa Rica, please contact us for references and quotes.

We work mostly in Spanish cedar as in the cabinets at right, laurel, and teak as in the doors pictured below, and we will harvest acacia that we planted in 2006. The trees we are growing on our plantations are owned by over 200 individuals and companies who have entrusted us with this task.

We encourage you to spread information you find here, but we do ask that you contact us before using photos or information from this site. Our material is from our own careful research and experience and may not apply to the soils and climates of other locations. (Please be aware of this if you have seen any of our writing elsewhere.) We want to make it possible for everyone to participate in turning the tide on deforestation.

Our Belief Finca Leola S.A. believes that the conservation of tropicalhardwoods for future generations will be achieved through sustainable forestry practices that are both a profitable investment and beneficial to the communities and to the ecological biodiversity surrounding tropical tree farms. We also believe that reducing the pressure against deforestation of old-growth forest is best done by using an alternative renewable source, plantation-grown hardwoods, to manufacture the products traditionally taken from these forests. To this end, we are growing trees for processing and sale as lumber and wood products. After all the trees have been harvested, the land they have helped pay for will be turned over to perpetual forest, forever protected from clear-cutting.

For those of you who can't come visit us in Costa Rica, you'll find lots of pictures on this website. The photo at right shows rows of pruned teak.

Overview of the Web Site

Here are some of the things you will find on this site.

	Reforestation — Much of what you will find in our blogs is about what we continue to learn in this area.
	Tree Information — This section includes not only characteristics of the different varieties of wood, but growth rates, current prices, and information on propagating, planting, pruning, fertilizing, etc. as information becomes available from our research.
	Profitable Reforestation — As you can see from our belief statement, we think that making money in reforestation is a good thing.
	Life in the Campo — What happens when a gringo and gringa impact (or more likely are impacted by) Costa Rican country living? A series of lighthearted articles discussing adventures in Costa Rica while trying to learn the culture while doing business. We think you will enjoy them.
	Costa Rica — Hundreds of photos taken in our part of Costa Rica and an assortment of links for those interested in visiting here or learning more about the people, language, commerce, and culture.
	Furniture and Wood Products — Everything we make is from sustainably harvested wood, whether from our own plantations or from nearby farms.

Although extreme care is taken to ensure the accuracy of information in this website, its owners, associated companies, and associated individuals accept no responsibility for damage or loss of any kind suffered directly or indirectly as a result of reliance upon information contained in this site.

RESOURCE MARKET

Research and Markets: Canadian Natural Resources Limited To Increase Spending On Natural Gas Exploration In 2009.
Business Wire | July 15, 2008 | COPYRIGHT 2009 Business Wire. This material is published under license from the publisher through the Gale Group, Farmington Hills, Michigan. All inquiries regarding rights should be directed to the Gale Group. (Hide copyright information) Copyright
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DUBLIN, Ireland -- Research and Markets (http://www.researchandmarkets.com/research/271220/canadian_natural_r) has announced the addition of the "Canadian Natural Resources Limited Pipeline Operation Asset Summary Report" report to their offering.

Canadian Natural Resources Limited Pipeline Operation Assets Summary Report is an essential source for company data and information. The report…

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OZONELAYER

"The ozone layer" refers to the ozone within stratosphere, where over 90% of the earth's ozone resides. Ozone is an irritating, corrosive, colorless gas with a smell something like burning electrical wiring. In fact, ozone is easily produced by any high-voltage electrical arc (spark plugs, Van de Graaff generators, Tesla coils, arc welders). Each molecule of ozone has three oxygen atoms and is produced when oxygen molecules (O2) are broken up by energetic electrons or high energy radiation. For information on the history of the ozone layer for the layman, see the Short history of ozone depletion , National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's NOAA Ozone overview or NOAA on stratospheric ozone. For short and to-the-point answers, check out Robert Parson's Ozone overview, FAQ1

The Stratosphere

Variations in temperature and pressure divide the earths atmosphere into layers, shown below, and mixing of gases between the layers happens very slowly.

• The altitudes on the diagram are logarithmic so an analogy in the glossary might give you a better idea of the relative thicknesses of these layers.
• Notice that the lowest 10% of the atmosphere holds 90% of the air. This is because gases are compressable. In a huge pile of feathers the bottom-most feathers become compressed under the weight of the feathers above them. Likewise the lower levels of the atmosphere are filled with compressed air while the upper levels, such as the stratosphere, contain very 'thin' uncompressed air. Although the stratosphere layer is over four times thicker than the lower atmosphere, the stratosphere holds so little gas that ozone is still considered one of the minor trace-gases of the overall atmosphere.

The ozone layer absorbs 97-99% of the sun's high frequency ultraviolet light , light which is potentially damaging to life on earth. Every 1% decrease in the earths ozone shield is projected to increases the amount of UV light exposure to the lower atmosphere by 2%. Because this would cause more ozone to form in the lower atmosphere, it is uncertain how much of UV light would actually reach the earths surface. Recent UV measurements from around the northern hemisphere indicate small UV increases in rural areas and almost no increase in areas near large cities.

Units used to measure ozone concentration

When describing the amount or concentration of gas, scientists resort to several different units:

1. Dobsin unit (DU)- the principle unit for measuring ozone concentration. One DU is about twenty-seven million molecules per square centimeter ( the palm of your hand covers an area of rougly a hundred square centimeters). The ozone concentration over the US is about 300 DU and the antarctic hole during the late spring can drop to 117 DU.
2. Mixing ratios: within a specified volume, it is a fraction of the number of molecules of a particular gas divided by the total number of molecules in that given space. Terms of usually abreviated, like ppmv for parts-per-million or ppbv which is parts-per-billion . For example the concentration of HCl at 3 km is said to be about 0.1 ppbv; this means that if you selected a volume of air that contained 10 billion molecules of air, one of those molecules would be an HCl molecule.

Factors influencing Ozone concentrations

1. Stratospheric sulfate aerosols: large explosive volcanoes are able to place a significant amount of aerosols into the lower stratosphere, as well as some chlorine. Because more than 90% of a volcanic plume is water vapor most of the other compounds, including volcanic chlorine, get ''rained-out'' of the stratosphere. The effects of a large volcano on global weather are significant, which in turn can affect localized weather patterns such as the antarctic ozone hole. Many observations have linked the 1991 Mt. Pinatubo eruption to a 20% increase in the ozone hole that following spring[Solomon et al. 1993]) . The effects of a large volcanic eruption on total global ozone are more modest (less than 3%) and last no more than 2-3 years.
2. Stratospheric winds: every 26 months the tropical winds in the lower stratophere change from easterly to westerly and then back again, an event called the Quasi-biennial Ocillation (QBO). The QBO causes ozone values at a particular latitude to expand and contract roughly 3%. Since stratospheric winds move ozone, not destroy it, the loss of one latitude is the gain of another and globally the effects cancel out.

3. Greenhouse gases: to the degree that greenhouse gases might heat the planet and alter weather patterns, the magnatude of the stratospheric winds will certainly be affected. Some of the more popular senarios of global warming predict cooler stratospheric temperatures, leading to more polar stratospheric clouds and more active chlorine in the area of the antarctic ozone hole.
4. Sunspot cycle: ozone is created by solar UV radiation. The amount of UV radiation produced by the sun is not constant but varies by several percent in a rougly 11year cycle. This 11year cycle is related to magnetic changes within the sun which increase the solar UV output, and is heralded by an increase sunspots which appear on the surface of the sun. Comparisons of yearly ozone concentrations show a small 11 year variation in global ozone of about 2%. Episodes of unusual solar activity, solar storms and large solar flares, could certainly alter this value.
5. Stratospheric chlorine, coming mostly from man-made halocarbons. Careful subtracting of other natural factors yields a net decrease of 3% per decade in global ozone,1978-1991; due most likely to catalytic degredation by stratospheric chlorine.

Decrease in global ozone The measurement period is from November 1978 through November 1987, and combines depletion due to natural and man-made causes. This analysis and graphic comes from the United Nations Environmental Protection Agency(UNEP).